Can We Trust the Bible?

The Bible has been a subject of scrutiny and debate for centuries. While skeptics question its validity, many believe that the fulfillment of its prophecies throughout history is evidence of its divine inspiration. This article explores several significant biblical prophecies and their historical fulfillments. By examining these events chronologically, providing mathematical explanations for time prophecies, and citing credible historical sources, we aim to present a comprehensive and engaging case for the trustworthiness of the Bible.

Understanding Biblical Prophecy

What Is Biblical Prophecy?

Biblical prophecy involves messages from God delivered through prophets, often containing revelations about future events. These prophecies serve to guide, warn, and provide hope to people across generations.

The Role of Prophecy in Validating Scripture

The accurate fulfillment of biblical prophecies suggests knowledge beyond human capability, supporting the claim of divine inspiration in the Bible. Analyzing these prophecies and their historical fulfillments can strengthen faith and challenge skepticism.

Prophecy Timeline

To understand the succession of events, we’ll explore the prophecies in chronological order:

1. Destruction of Jerusalem I (586 B.C.)
2. The Conquests of Babylon, Medo-Persia, Tyre, Greece and Rome (539 B.C. to 476 A.D.)
3. The 70 weeks prophecy and other Messianic Prophecies 
4. Destruction of Jerusalem II (A.D. 70)
5. Ten Days of Persecution (A.D. 303–313)
6. Rise of the Papacy and Uprooting of Three Kingdoms (A.D. 538)
7. Persecution of the Saints During Papal Supremacy (A.D. 538–1798)
8. The Fall of the Papacy (A.D. 1798)
9. The Dark Day, Falling Stars, and Lisbon Earthquake (1755–1833)
10. The Fall of the Ottoman Empire (A.D. 1840)
11. The Rise of America (Late 18th Century Onward)
12. Healing of the Papal Wound (A.D. 1929)
13. Spread of Immorality in the Last Days

1. Destruction of Jerusalem I (586 B.C)

Jeremiah’s prophecy (Jeremiah 6):”gather yourselves to flee out of the midst of Jerusalem, and blow the trumpet in Tekoa, and set up a sign of fire in Bethhaccerem: for evil appeareth out of the north, and great destruction…Prepare ye war against her; arise, and let us go up at noon. Woe unto us! for the day goeth away, for the shadows of the evening are stretched out. Arise, and let us go by night, and let us destroy her palaces. For thus hath the Lord of hosts said, Hew ye down trees, and cast a mount against Jerusalem: this is the city to be visited“

The prophet Jeremiah prophesied for several years about the coming destruction of Jerusalem and the first Temple built by King Solomon by Babylon. During the time that he began prophesying (from around 626 BC), Babylon was then rising as a world power and was still not an expansionist power. At the time of Jeremiah’s initial prophecies, Babylon was being organized by Nebuchadnezzar’s father, Nabopolassar (ruled from 626 BC to 605 BC). However, within a few years, Babylon rose to world dominion under Nebuchadnezzar and destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple in 586 BC, just as Jeremiah had prophesied. Daniel and almost all Judea were taken into captivity in Babylon (Daniel 1:1-2, and 9:2).

The duration of the Babylonian captivity and the destruction of Babylon were also prophesied in Jeremiah 25:8-12: “…And this whole land shall be a desolation, and an astonishment; and these nations shall serve the king of Babylon seventy years. And it shall come to pass, when seventy years are accomplished, that I will punish the king of Babylon, and that nation, saith the Lord, for their iniquity, and the land of the Chaldeans, and will make it perpetual desolations.”

Historical proof: the historical proof of the destruction of Jerusalem has been found and the clay tablet, called the Babylonian or Nebuchadnezzar chronicle, describing this history is in the British Museum. This confirms the fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy in history.

1.2 Prophecy of Babylon’s Fall

The Biblical Prediction

• Isaiah 13:19-22: “And Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees’ excellency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited… but wild beasts of the desert shall lie there.”
• Jeremiah 51:26: “They shall not take of thee a stone for a corner, nor a stone for foundations; but thou shalt be desolate forever.”
• Jeremiah 25:12: And it shall come to pass, when seventy years are accomplished, that I will punish the king of Babylon, and that nation, saith the Lord, for their iniquity, and the land of the Chaldeans, and will make it perpetual desolations.

Historical Fulfillment

• Fall to the Medes and Persians: In 539 B.C., Babylon fell to the Medo-Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great, as recorded by historians Herodotus and Xenophon. Daniel also confirmed this in Daniel 5:25-31.
• Gradual Decline: After its conquest, Babylon underwent a gradual decline, eventually becoming uninhabited ruins, aligning with the prophecy that it would “never be inhabited.”
• Modern Evidence: Today, the site of ancient Babylon, located in modern-day Iraq, remains largely uninhabited, with ruins that testify to its past glory and sudden fall.

2. The Succession of World Empires in Daniel 2, 7, & 8

The Dreams of Nebuchadnezzar and Daniel

• Daniel 2:31-45: King Nebuchadnezzar dreams of a great statue made of different metals—gold, silver, bronze, iron, and iron mixed with clay—which Daniel interprets as representing successive world empires.
• Daniel 7: Daniel dreams about the same empires but with different symbolisms: Lion with eagle wings, limping Bear with 3 ribs in his mouth, 4-headed Leopard, Dragon with ten horns, an 11th horn that uproots 3 horns, and iron teeth and claws
• Daniel 8: This second dream expands on the earlier one in Daniel 7. A he-goat with a prominent horn attacks a ram by a river with great fury. The horn breaks and become 4 horns, from which another little horn appears.

Interpretation of the Statue and Beasts

1. Head of Gold or Lion with Eagle-wings: Represents Babylon (605–539 B.C.).
2. Chest and Arms of Silver or limping Bear with 3 ribs in its teeth: Symbolizes Medo-Persia (539–331 B.C.), which conquered Babylon.
3. Belly and Thighs of Bronze, 4-headed leopard, or he-goat with a prominent horn between its eyes: Stands for Greece (331–168 B.C.) under Alexandar the Great, which was divided among his four generals after his death.
4. Legs of Iron or ten-horned dragon: Denotes Rome (168 B.C.–A.D. 476), which succeeded Greece.
5. Feet of Iron and Clay: Represents divided Europe post-Rome; some countries were as soft as clay and others were very strong as iron.

Historical Fulfillment

• Accurate Succession: History confirms the succession of these empires in the exact order predicted. Indeed, just as the Ram (Medo-Persia) was by the river, Alexander the Great (the prominent horn between the eyes of he-goat) defeated the Persian Empire by a river (Bumodus) in Arbela (Gaugamela), in modern-day northern Iraq.
• Greece’s Rise: Alexander the Great swiftly conquered the Medo-Persian Empire (1st October 331 B.C), establishing Greek dominance as foretold. He died shortly after conquering Asia and his empire was divided among his four generals: symbolized by the four leopard heads and 4 horns on the he-goat.
• Division of Rome: The Roman empire succeeded Greece and ruled for almost a millennium until it was broken apart into divisions through Barbarian invasions. The Roman Empire eventually split into various nations, corresponding to the feet of iron and clay.

2.2 The Destruction of Tyre

The Biblical Prediction

• Ezekiel 26:3-14: “They shall destroy the walls of Tyrus, and break down her towers… I will also scrape her dust from her, and make her like the top of a rock… thou shalt be built no more.”

Historical Fulfillment

• Siege by Nebuchadnezzar: Shortly after the prophecy, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, destroying the mainland city.
• Conquest by Alexander the Great: In 332 B.C., Alexander the Great destroyed the island city of Tyre by building a causeway using the rubble of the mainland city, effectively “scraping her dust” and making her “like the top of a rock.” After conquering Tyre through a 7-month siege, he was welcomed in Jerusalem and told by the High-priest that according to Daniel, he will conquer Persia. Indeed, Alexandar had a dream of meeting a priest in white gown who will direct him to conquer Asia (account written by Flavius Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews).
• Present-Day Tyre: The site of ancient Tyre is a place where fishermen spread their nets, precisely as Ezekiel predicted.

3 Messianic Prophecies (Predictions About the Messiah)

1. Birthplace:
   • Micah 5:2: Predicts the Messiah would be born in Bethlehem.
2. Manner of Death:
   • Psalm 22: Describes crucifixion-like sufferings centuries before the practice was known in Israel.
3. Role as Suffering Servant:
   • Isaiah 53: Foretells a servant who would bear the sins of many.
   • Daniel 9:25-27: Foretells the actual time the Messiah shall be “cut off” or killed after confirming the covenant with many for a week (7 years) “and in the midst of the week (3.5 years) he shall cause the sacrifice and the oblation to cease”. 

Historical Fulfillment

• Jesus of Nazareth: Born in Bethlehem, crucified in Jerusalem, and his life aligns with the descriptions in these prophecies. Christ was killed after 3.5 years of ministry and after the remaining 3.5 years, Stephen was stoned, and the gospel (covenant) was spread to the Gentiles. Thus was the covenant confirmed with the Jews for a week (7 prophetic days or 7 years).
• Non-Biblical Sources:
  • Tacitus and Josephus, Roman historians, confirm the existence and crucifixion of Jesus, lending external validation.

3.2 The Seventy Weeks Prophecy

The Biblical Prediction

• Daniel 9:24-27: “Seventy weeks are determined upon thy people… from the going forth of the commandment to restore and to build Jerusalem unto the Messiah the Prince shall be seven weeks, and threescore and two weeks (69 weeks) …”
• Interpretation: In prophetic literature, a day often symbolizes a year, making 70 weeks (7 days a week) equal to 490 years (70 weeks x 7 days = 490 days).

Historical Fulfillment

• Starting Point: The decree to rebuild Jerusalem issued in 457 B.C. by King Artaxerxes of Persia.
• Timeline to the Messiah: Counting 483 years (69 weeks) from 457 B.C. brings us to A.D. 27 (add 1 year when crossing from BC to AD because of the zeroth year), the year Jesus began His public ministry.
• The Crucifixion: The prophecy mentions the Messiah would be “cut off” in the middle of the final week, pointing to A.D. 31, aligning with the time of Jesus’ crucifixion.

4. Destruction of Jerusalem II (A.D. 70)

The Biblical Prediction

• Daniel 9:26: “And the people of the prince who is to come shall destroy the city and the sanctuary.”
• Matthew 24:2: Jesus said, “Not one stone shall be left here upon another, that shall not be thrown down.”

Historical Fulfillment

• Siege of Jerusalem: In A.D. 70, Roman General Titus besieged Jerusalem. The city and its temple were destroyed, fulfilling Jesus’ prediction.
• Historical Accounts:
  • Flavius Josephus, a first-century Jewish historian, provides a detailed account in The Wars of the Jews.
  • Ellen G. White, in The Great Controversy, describes the siege and its devastating effects.

Impact

• Casualties and Aftermath: Over a million Jews perished; survivors were sold into slavery and Jerusalem was inhabited by non-Jews. The name of Judea and Jerusalem were erased from the map and called Palestine. This is one of the reasons why the Jews and Palestinians are still fighting over the land because when the Jews returned after World War II, the Muslims were already there.
• Significance: This event marked a pivotal moment in Jewish history and fulfilled specific biblical prophecies with remarkable accuracy.

5. Ten Days of Persecution (A.D. 303–313)

The Biblical Prediction

• Revelation 2:10: “You will have tribulation ten days.”

Interpretation

• In prophetic literature, a day often symbolizes a year (Ezekiel 4:6).
• Ten Days = Ten Years.

Historical Fulfillment

• Diocletianic Persecution: From A.D. 303 to 313, Roman Emperor Diocletian initiated the most severe persecution of Christians, lasting ten years.
• Historical Sources:
  • Eusebius of Caesarea documents these events in Church History.
  • John Foxe mentions this period in Foxe’s Book of Martyrs.

Significance

• End of Persecution: The Edict of Milan in A.D. 313, issued by Emperor Constantine, granted religious tolerance, ending the persecution.
• Prophetic Accuracy: The precise ten-year duration aligns with the prophecy.

6. Rise of the Papacy and Uprooting of Three Kingdoms (A.D. 538)

The Biblical Prediction

• Daniel 7:8: “There came up among them another little horn… and three of the first horns were plucked up by the roots.”
• Revelation 13:1: Describes a beast rising from the sea with ten horns.

Interpretation

• Little Horn: Represents a rising power among ten kingdoms (the divided Roman Empire).
• Three Horns Uprooted: Three kingdoms would be subdued to establish this power.
• Beast with 10 horns from the sea: Represents the Papacy ruling over the divided Roman empire’s dominions under the Holy Roman Empire ruled by the papacy instead of emperors. The sea represents a highly populated region (Revelation 17:15)

Historical Fulfillment

• Uprooting of Three Kingdoms:
  • Heruli (A.D. 493)
  • Vandals (A.D. 534)
  • Ostrogoths (Defeated in A.D. 538)
• Rise of the Papacy:
  • With these kingdoms removed, the Papacy gained temporal power in A.D. 538.
• Historical Sources:
  • Edward Gibbon, in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, discusses these events.
  • Ellen G. White elaborates in The Great Controversy.

Significance

• Establishment of Papal Supremacy: Marked the beginning of the Papacy’s influential role in European politics and religion. The whole of the Western Roman Empire fell under the dominion of the Papacy.

7. Persecution of the Saints During Papal Supremacy (A.D. 538–1798)

The Biblical Prediction

• Daniel 7:25: “He shall persecute the saints of the Most High… for a time and times and half a time.”
• Revelation 13:5: “Authority to continue for forty-two months.”

Interpretation

• Time Periods:
  • Time = 1 year
  • Times = 2 years
  • Half a Time = 0.5 year
  • Total = 3.5 years
• Prophetic Year Calculation:
  • One Prophetic Year = 360 days
  • 3.5 Years = 1260 days
  • 42 Months = 1260 days
• Day-Year Principle: One prophetic day equals one literal year (Ezekiel 4:6).

Historical Fulfillment

• Duration: A.D. 538 to 1798 equals 1260 years.
• Persecution:
  • Waldensians: Faced severe persecution; many fled to the Piedmont valleys.
  • Heretics Burned: Numerous individuals were executed for opposing Papal doctrines.
• Historical Accounts:
  • J.A. Wylie, History of Protestantism, details the Waldensians’ plight.
  • Jean-Henri Merle d’Aubigné, History of the Reformation, documents the broader persecution.
  • John Milton’s poem “On the Late Massacre in Piedmont” reflects on these tragedies.

Significance

• Consistency with Prophecy: The 1260-year period aligns precisely with the duration of Papal dominance and persecution.

8. The Fall of the Papacy (A.D. 1798)

The Biblical Prediction

• Revelation 13:10: “He who leads into captivity shall go into captivity.”
• Daniel 7:26: “But the court shall be seated, and they shall take away his dominion.”

Historical Fulfillment

• Capture of the Pope:
  • In 1798, French General Louis-Alexandre Berthier, under Napoleon Bonaparte, entered Rome and took Pope Pius VI captive.
  • This event effectively ended the Papacy’s temporal power.
• Historical Sources:
  • George Trevor, Rome and Its Papal Rulers, describes the event.
  • Encyclopedia Britannica confirms the capture and its impact.

Significance

• End of the 1260 Years: The Papacy’s fall in 1798 marks the conclusion of the prophesied period.
• Validation of Prophecy: The precise fulfillment enhances the credibility of biblical predictions.

9. The Dark Day, Falling Stars, and Lisbon Earthquake (1755–1833)

The Biblical Prediction

• Revelation 6:12–13: “There was a great earthquake; and the sun became black as sackcloth… and the stars of heaven fell to the earth.”

Historical Fulfillment

Lisbon Earthquake (1755)

• Event: On November 1, 1755, one of the most destructive earthquakes in history struck Lisbon, Portugal.
• Impact:
  • Estimated 60,000 deaths.
  • Felt across Europe, Africa, and America.
• Historical Accounts:
  • Documented in numerous historical records, including Encyclopedia Britannica.

    

The Dark Day (May 19, 1780)

• Event: A mysterious darkness covered parts of North America.
• Characteristics:
  • Darkness during daytime hours.
  • Candles required at noon.
• Historical Sources:
  • Samuel Williams, Harvard professor, wrote about it.
  • Ellen G. White, in The Great Controversy, references eyewitness and newspaper accounts.

Falling Stars (November 13, 1833)

• Event: The Leonid meteor shower produced an unprecedented display.
• Impact:
  • Visible across North America.
  • Described as “stars falling like snowflakes.”
• Historical Accounts:
  • Denison Olmsted, Yale astronomer, studied and documented the event.
  • Newspapers and journals of the time reported on the phenomenon.

Significance

• Sequential Fulfillment: These events occurred in the order described in Revelation.
• Awakening: Sparked interest in prophecy and the Second Advent movement.

10. The Fall of the Ottoman Empire (A.D. 1840)

The Biblical Prediction

• Revelation 9:13-15: “And the sixth angel sounded, and I heard a voice from the four horns of the golden altar which is before God, Saying to the sixth angel which had the trumpet, Loose the four angels which are bound in the great river Euphrates. And the four angels were loosed, which were prepared for an hour, and a day, and a month, and a year, for to slay the third part of men.

Interpretation of Symbols

• Four Angels: Represent four Islamic sultanies or leaders in the regions around the Euphrates River.
• River Euphrates: Symbolizes the Ottoman Empire, which was centered around this river.
• An Hour, a Day, a Month, and a Year: A prophetic time period during which these powers would be active.

• Calculation:
  • One Prophetic Year = 360 days (or 360 years: Ezekiel 4:6 and Numbers 14:34)
  • One Month = 30 days
  • One Day = 1 day
  • One Hour = 1/24 day ≈ 0.0417 years ≈ 15 days
  • Total = 391 years and 15 days

Historical Fulfillment

• July 27, 1449: The date when John VIII Palaiologos, the Byzantine Emperor, died. His brother, Constantine XI, sought permission from the Ottoman Sultan Murad II before ascending the throne. This act symbolized the Byzantine Empire’s submission to Ottoman authority.
• Start Date: July 27, 1449.
• Adding 391 years: Brings us to July 27, 1840
• Adding 15 days: Brings us to August 11, 1840

  

• Josiah Litch’s Prediction:
  • In the 1830s, Litch interpreted this prophecy to predict the fall of the Ottoman Empire in August 1840.
• Event:
  • On August 11, 1840, the Ottoman Empire accepted the terms of the London Convention of 1840, also known as the Treaty of London, effectively surrendering its independence.
  • Under pressure from European powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia), the Ottomans agreed to international control over their affairs, particularly concerning Egypt and the Khedivate of Muhammad Ali Pasha.
  • Loss of Independence:
    • The Ottoman Empire effectively lost its sovereignty and became reliant on European powers. This event marked the beginning of the end for Ottoman dominance
    • Shift in Power Dynamics:
      • The empire could no longer act independently in international affairs.
    • Historical Impact:
      • This event is seen as the end of the Ottoman Empire’s sovereignty and the beginning of its decline, leading to its eventual dissolution after World War I.

Significance of the Date

• Fulfillment of Prophecy:
  • The precise timing (391 years and 15 days after July 27, 1449) aligns with the prophecy in Revelation 9:13-15.
• Validation of Interpretation:
  • Josiah Litch’s prediction, published before the event, gained widespread attention when it was fulfilled on the exact date he specified and energized prophetic study.
  • Publication: Litch published his interpretation and prediction before 1840.
  • Result: When events unfolded as he predicted, it caused a sensation and bolstered the credibility of prophetic interpretation among his contemporaries.
  • The prophecy does not indicate the total duration of the Ottoman Empire’s existence but highlights a specific period of prophetic significance.
  • The precise fulfillment of the time prophecy adds weight to the argument for the Bible’s trustworthiness and the validity of prophetic interpretation.
    • Historical Sources:
    • Josiah Litch, The Probability of the Second Coming of Christ.
    • Josiah Litch, An Address to the Clergy (1838), where he details his interpretation and prediction.
    • Ellen G. White, The Great Controversy, discusses the significance of this prophecy.
    • Historical Records:
      • The London Convention of 1840 and its impact on the Ottoman Empire.
      • Encyclopedia Britannica entries on the Ottoman Empire and the Eastern Question.
    • Contemporary Accounts:
      • Newspapers and journals from 1840 reporting on the Ottoman Empire’s acceptance of the treaty.
    • Historical records confirm the decline of Ottoman sovereignty.

11. The Rise of America (Late 18th Century Onward)

The Biblical Prediction

• Revelation 13:11: “Then I saw another beast coming up out of the earth, and he had two horns like a lamb.”

Interpretation

• Beast from the Earth: Represents a new nation arising peacefully from where there was initially less-populated land (compared to Europe that was densely populated).
• Two Horns Like a Lamb: Symbolizes civil and religious liberty.

Historical Fulfillment

• Emergence of the United States:
  • Founded in 1776, around the time the Papacy received its “deadly wound.” Interestingly, it occurred in the same order as predicted in Revelation 13:10-12.
  • Grew rapidly in power and influence.
• Characteristics:
  • Separation of church and state.
  • Emphasis on freedom and democracy.
• Historical Sources:
  • S.N. Haskell, The Story of the Seer of Patmos, connects America to this prophecy.
  • Ellen G. White, in The Great Controversy, elaborates on America’s role.

Significance

• Alignment with Prophecy: The United States fits the description of the beast rising from the earth.
• Global Influence: America’s rise to a world power fulfills the prophecy’s implications.

12. Healing of the Papal Wound (A.D. 1929)

The Biblical Prediction

• Revelation 13:3: “And I saw one of his heads as if it had been mortally wounded, and his deadly wound was healed.”

Historical Fulfillment

• Lateran Treaty (1929):
  • Signed between the Holy See and Italy.
  • Recognized Vatican City as an independent state.
• Restoration of Power:
  • The Papacy regained political status.
• Historical Sources:
  • New York Times (February 11, 1929): “Heal Wound of Many Years.”
  • Encyclopedia Britannica discusses the significance of the treaty.

Significance

• Prophetic Fulfillment: The restoration aligns with the prophecy of the wound being healed.
• Modern Influence: The Papacy continues to play a significant role in world affairs.

13. Spread of Immorality in the Last Days

The Biblical Prediction

• Luke 17:28–30: “Likewise as it was also in the days of Lot… even so will it be in the day when the Son of Man is revealed.”
• 2 Timothy 3:1–5: Describes people being lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God.

Interpretation

• Days of Lot: Refers to Sodom and Gomorrah, cities known for sexual perversion and immorality such as homosexuality, bestiality, lesbianism, etc.
• Last Days: A period before Christ’s return characterized by moral decline.

Contemporary Fulfillment

• Cultural Shifts:
  • Increased acceptance, legalization/legislation of LGBTQ+, transgender surgeries, shared bathrooms between sexes, transgender males in female sports, multiple genders, same or similar clothes worn by both sexes etc.
  • Discussions on topics like sexuality and ethics are prominent in society.
• Global Trends:
  • Media and entertainment often reflect themes on LGBTQ+ with many TV shows and movies showing lesbianism, gay, transgenders to make it popular and acceptable globally, just as it was in Sodom and Gomorrah.

Significance

• Moral Climate: The current state of global LGBTQ+ legalization and militancy align with the prophetic descriptions, affirming the veracity of the Bible.

Implications of Fulfilled Prophecy

Evidence of Divine Inspiration

The precise fulfillment of these prophecies suggests knowledge beyond human foresight, supporting the Bible’s claim of divine origin. For believers, these fulfillments reinforce faith in the Bible as a trustworthy guide. The alignment of prophecy and history invites skeptics to reconsider the Bible’s credibility.

Conclusion

The convergence of biblical prophecy and historical events provides compelling evidence for the Bible’s trustworthiness. The detailed predictions and their precise fulfillments transcend coincidence, suggesting a divine influence in the Bible’s writings. Scholars and historians have documented these events, offering insights that bridge ancient texts with modern understanding.

While interpretations may vary, the historical validation of these prophecies invites all readers to consider the Bible not merely as religious literature but as a credible historical document with profound implications for our understanding of history and spirituality.

References

• Bible: Passages from Daniel, Revelation, Matthew, Luke, and 2 Timothy.
• White, Ellen G.: The Great Controversy.
• Smith, Uriah: Daniel and the Revelation.
• Haskell, S.N.: The Story of the Seer of Patmos.
• Litch, Josiah: The Probability of the Second Coming of Christ.
• Froom, Leroy Edwin: The Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers
• Historical Accounts:
  • Flavius Josephus: The Wars of the Jews.
  • Edward Gibbon: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
  • J.A. Wylie: History of Protestantism.
  • Jean-Henri Merle d’Aubigné: History of the Reformation.
  • John Milton: “On the Late Massacre in Piedmont”.
  • Denison Olmsted: Letters on Astronomy.
  • Encyclopedia Britannica.
  • New York Times archives.